The Copper Country strike of 1913–1914 was an important labor strike that involved all copper mines in the Copper Country of Michigan. The strike, organized by the Western Federation of Miners, was the first strike led by a union in the Copper Country. Workers aimed to get shorter workdays, higher pay, recognition for their union, and to keep families working together in the mines. The strike lasted just over nine months, including the Italian Hall disaster on Christmas Eve, and ended with the union being forced out of the Keweenaw Peninsula. Although the strike did not succeed, it is seen as an important change in the history of the Copper Country.
Background
The Keweenaw Peninsula has many areas with large amounts of native copper. This copper was first mined by indigenous people, and French and British explorers observed the value of the deposits there. Douglass Houghton studied the area in 1831 and 1832, and in 1840, he worked as Michigan’s State Geologist. His 1841 report included over twenty-seven pages about copper and copper ore. He wrote that the copper ores were not only high quality but also easy to process. He noted that samples he tested were richer than copper being mined in Cornwall at the time. His report led to a large number of settlers moving to the peninsula.
Although many early mines did not succeed, a few became profitable, and eventually, several major mines were established. The Copper Country soon became the first major copper mining region in the United States. By 1913, most copper in the area was produced by three companies: the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, which was the largest and richest mine in the region; the Quincy Mine; and the mines owned by the Copper Range Company.
Most early successful mines were operated by Cornish miners. At that time, many mines in Cornwall were not working well, so Cornish miners began traveling to new mining areas worldwide. These miners brought a system of mine operations based on contracts. In this system, miners formed groups (often including family members) and signed contracts with mine operators to complete specific tasks. Miners were usually paid based on the amount of rock they removed, as stated in their contracts.
Because of the influence of Cornish miners, the contract system was used in the Copper Country as well. However, contracts were only used with miners who identified and blasted copper-bearing rock. Trammers, who removed the blasted rock using heavy tram cars, were not paid through contracts and were often seen as a lower-status group of workers.
Major issues
Several major problems led to the strike that happened between 1913 and 1914. One important issue was the way the mines controlled workers’ lives. The copper mines in the Copper Country had a system where they closely watched over workers both inside and outside the mines. This system began because early mines in the Keweenaw wilderness had no nearby towns to provide services. To meet their needs, the mines built their own homes, schools, and hospitals. They also built roads and provided doctors. Homes were given first to miners and skilled workers, then to men with families, and often to certain ethnic groups, like non-immigrants and people from Cornwall. In return, miners were expected to follow the mines’ rules. Miners who fought, drank too much, or acted improperly could be fired at any time.
Another major issue was the use of the one-man drill. In the past, miners worked in groups of three to drill holes for mining. One person held a steel drill, and two others used sledgehammers to hit it. By the 1870s, mines began improving this system. The first improvement was the "two-man drill," a mechanical tool powered by compressed air. This tool was more efficient but still needed two workers to set it up and use it. Some mines allowed three workers to operate it, making the change from the old system easier.
By 1913, mines started replacing the two-man drill with the "one-man drill," which only needed one worker to operate. Miners had two main problems with this change. First, it broke up the traditional family mining teams, leaving some workers without jobs and reducing family income. Second, a miner using a one-man drill worked alone. If an accident happened, it might not be discovered until much later, unlike the old system, where family members were nearby to help.
The final major issues were about working hours, wages, and child labor. Miners usually worked 10 to 12 hours a day, with one day off each week. Although an old contract system remained, mines changed contracts so that all miners earned about the same amount each month, subtracting costs for items like candles, drill parts, and other mining supplies. At the same time, new copper mines in the western United States opened. These mines had more resources and higher wages after strikes led by the Western Federation of Miners. Many young children were hired to help families earn more money. As society changed in the early 1900s, workers began asking for an 8-hour workday, fewer children working, and wages similar to those in western mines like Anaconda.
While many factors led workers to join a union and plan a strike, the Western Federation of Miners (WFM) only asked its members to vote on two questions. The first was demanding that mine managers recognize the union and agree to a meeting to discuss wages, hours, and working conditions in Michigan’s copper district. The second was to declare a strike if managers refused to meet or make changes. After the vote, the WFM sent letters to the mines asking for a meeting. Mine managers refused, and the strike began on July 23, 1913. The one-man drill was not mentioned in the vote or in the letters sent to mine managers.
The strike
Miners in the Keweenaw did not join a union until shortly before the 1913 strike. Earlier, some unplanned strikes had happened at individual mines, but these usually involved only one group of workers, such as trammers, who were paid less than miners for hard work. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, several unions tried to form groups in the Copper Country, but none were successful.
Mine owners strongly opposed all unions. In 1912, the Western Federation of Miners (WFM) began organizing miners in the Copper Country. Issues like low pay, long hours, and the use of the one-man drill—where one worker operated heavy equipment alone—led many miners to join the WFM. The WFM quickly created local groups and pushed for shorter workdays, higher wages, and the return of the two-man drill, where two workers shared the heavy work. The Keweenaw chapters of the WFM decided to strike on July 23, 1913. This strike happened without support from the national WFM, which had recently finished major strikes in other areas and had little money left.
After the strike began, the WFM collected donations and fees from members to help fund it. This was the first strike to affect all mines in the Copper Country. On the first day of the strike, nearly all mines in the area closed, as groups of workers blocked access to the mines. Miners held daily parades to stay strong and show their unity. Mine owners, led by James MacNaughton of the Calumet and Hecla mining company, asked Governor Woodbridge N. Ferris to send National Guard troops to control the situation. The governor agreed, leading to many confrontations, some violent, between workers and soldiers.
— Michigan National Guard General Perley L. Abbey to Governor Woodbridge Ferris, October 23, 1913
Both sides accused each other of violence and dishonest actions. The state and national governments tried to help the WFM, but mine managers refused to negotiate with unions or hire union members. Instead, they hired workers who would give up their union membership and brought in workers from other states or countries. Some of these workers may have been forced to work against their will.
By August 1913, most mines had enough workers to operate on a limited scale. At the same time, miners struggled without pay and supplies. The strike was expensive for the WFM, which provided help based on need and family size. The WFM’s funds quickly ran out, leaving many miners and families in poverty. Many families left the area to find work in growing cities like Detroit and Chicago. As winter began in 1913, the strike weakened significantly.
Seeberville affair
An event known as the "Seeberville Affair" took place on August 14, 1913. John Kalan and John Stimac, two workers on strike, walked across mine property. A guard named Humphrey Quick told them they could not cross the path. They did not follow the order, so the guard called his supervisor. The guard, another deputy, and some members of the Waddell-Mahon Detective Agency went to Kalan’s home to bring the two men to the supervisor for discussion. Kalan refused to go with them. After returning inside the boarding house, the group of men began shooting at the house. Stimac and another man named Stanko Stepic were injured. Two boarders who had no connection to Kalan or Stimac were killed: Alois Tijan died at the scene, and Steve Putrich died the next day. The funeral for Tijan and Putrich was attended by about 3,500 to 5,000 people. The procession was led by labor activist Anna Clemenc. The deaths made the strike more intense. In February 1914, three Waddell-Mahon guards and a deputy sheriff were found guilty of manslaughter.
The Italian Hall disaster
On Christmas Eve in 1913, the Women's Auxiliary of the WFM planned a Christmas party for workers who were on strike and their families. The union and many local people gave gifts to children and money for party supplies. The event took place in the upstairs ballroom of the Italian Hall, a building in Calumet owned by a group that helped Italians. Many families attended, including the children of workers who were striking, and the ballroom was filled with people.
At some point during the evening, a man whose identity is unknown entered the ballroom and shouted "Fire!" This caused a sudden rush of people trying to leave quickly. The main way out of the ballroom was a steep staircase leading to the front doors. During the rush, 73 people were crushed to death in the stairwell, and 60 of them were children.
The person who shouted "Fire!" has never been identified. Some people believe the man was part of the Citizens' Alliance, a group made up of business owners, citizens, and mine owners who opposed the strike. A few witnesses said they saw a button from the Citizens' Alliance on the man's jacket. However, an official investigation into the disaster did not reach a conclusion.
Aftermath
The disaster made the strike more intense, as people spread rumors about who shouted "Fire!" Soon after, Charles Moyer, the president of the WFM, was shot and forced onto a train leaving the Keweenaw. However, support for the strike decreased as organizers left the Copper Country, the WFM ran out of money, and strikers' families faced difficult conditions during winter. On April 13, 1914, the strikers voted to end the strike. At the start of the strike, the WFM had 9,000 members, but only 2,500 members remained to vote on ending the strike. Mining companies required any striker who wanted to return to work to turn in or destroy their WFM membership cards.
The strike did not achieve most of its goals. Mining companies continued using the one-man drill, which later became standard in all Copper Country mines. Collective bargaining was not accepted by the mines, leaving miners without protection from company decisions. Many miners left the Copper Country or returned to work under the mines' conditions.
However, some Copper Country mines introduced an 8-hour workday for miners who stayed to work during the strike. This change continued after the strike, as national labor laws required shorter workdays. These laws also limited child labor and increased daily wages for miners and trammers. Eventually, all mines switched to paying daily wages, ending the old system of family-group contracts.
The strike is often seen as a major change in the history of the Copper Country. Although the mines succeeded in the short term, the strike showed that collective action could influence mining companies. It also ended the old way mining companies treated workers. Mines no longer controlled workers' lives and reduced services they once provided.
The United Mine Workers of America led the Colorado Coalfield War, which happened at the same time as much of the Copper Country Strike, starting in September 1913. Seven days after the Michigan strike ended, the Ludlow Massacre occurred, where National Guardsmen killed over a dozen unarmed women and children. This event led to improvements in how miners were treated nationwide.
The mines in the Copper Country became unionized many years after the strike. The International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers (IUMMSW-CIO), which replaced the WFM, organized the Copper Range Company mines in 1939. Over time, low copper prices, empty mines, competition from newer mines, and ongoing labor issues caused all Copper Country mines to close. The Quincy Mine had already shut down in 1931 but reopened in 1937 due to wartime demand for copper, though it closed permanently in 1945. The Calumet and Hecla mines closed in 1943 after actions by the National Labor Relations Board. Calumet & Hecla shut down in 1969 after failing to agree with striking workers. This left the White Pine mine as the only remaining active mine in the Copper Country, which closed in 1995.