The Battle of Frenchtown, also called the Battle of the River Raisin and the River Raisin Massacre, includes two battles that happened one after the other during the War of 1812. On January 18 and 22, 1813, American forces led by Brigadier General James Winchester fought against British and Indigenous forces commanded by Colonel Henry Procter near Frenchtown, Michigan Territory (now Monroe, Michigan), on the River Raisin, about 35 miles (56 km) southwest of Detroit.

On January 18, American soldiers forced British and Indigenous troops to leave Frenchtown. This attack was part of a plan to retake Detroit after it was captured in the summer of 1812. Four days later, on January 22, British and Indigenous forces surprised American troops. Because the Americans were not ready, they lost 397 soldiers in this second battle, and 547 were captured. Some wounded prisoners were killed the next day by Indigenous warriors, and others were killed while being taken to Fort Amherstburg. The Battle of Frenchtown was the deadliest battle in Michigan’s history and caused the most American deaths in a single battle during the War of 1812.

Parts of the original battlefield were named a state historic park and added to the National Register of Historic Places. In 2009, the United States Congress allowed the creation of the River Raisin National Battlefield Park, one of four such parks in the United States and the only one that honors events from the War of 1812.

Naming

The Battle of Frenchtown happened in and around the Frenchtown Settlement, which was established in 1784 near the River Raisin in the Michigan Territory. The area where the battle took place is now part of the city of Monroe. Some sources use the name "Battle of Frenchtown" only for the fighting that occurred on January 22, 1813, and call the earlier fighting on January 18 the "First Battle of the River Raisin" or describe it as a prelude to the larger battle on January 22. The term "Battles of Frenchtown" is sometimes used to refer to the entire conflict that happened from January 18 to January 22. Although fighting occurred on January 18, the most intense fighting took place on January 22. These two battles are also known as the "Battle of the River Raisin" because they happened close to that river.

The fighting can be divided into two parts: the First Battle of the River Raisin on January 18 and the Second Battle of the River Raisin on January 22. The term "River Raisin Massacre" describes events that happened on January 23, the day after the second battle, when Indigenous warriors killed several wounded American soldiers who had been left behind by the British after they left Frenchtown.

Background

On August 17, 1812, Brigadier General William Hull, who led the American Army of the Northwest, gave up his army, the city of Detroit, and the Michigan Territory to the British after the Battle of Detroit. This event encouraged many Indigenous leaders in the Indiana and Illinois territories to support the British during the war.

After Hull’s defeat, Brigadier General James Winchester took command of the Army of the Northwest. Soon after, Major General William Henry Harrison replaced Winchester, with Winchester serving as his second-in-command. Winchester was ordered to lead 1,200 soldiers and militia from Fort Wayne to the Maumee Rapids (now Perrysburg, Ohio). At the same time, Harrison gathered more troops and supplies at Upper Sandusky before joining Winchester at the Maumee Rapids to march toward Detroit.

British forces near Detroit were led by Colonel Henry Procter. In December 1813, Procter’s forces included 270 soldiers from the 41st Regiment of Foot, 70 soldiers from the Royal Newfoundland Regiment, 25 artillerymen, and a small support team. Most of these soldiers were stationed at Amherstburg, while 114 soldiers under Captain Adam Muir were stationed in Detroit. Procter could also rely on soldiers from the Essex militia and the Provincial Marine.

The Wyandot, Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe tribes living in the area supported the British. Amherstburg was also home to about 800 Indigenous people who had fled after their villages were destroyed by Harrison’s forces in September 1812.

First Battle of the River Raisin

On January 10, 1813, Winchester arrived at the Maumee Rapids with about 1,300 regular soldiers and Kentucky militia. His orders were to stay at the rapids until Harrison arrived with reinforcements from Upper Sandusky before moving toward Detroit. On January 13, two residents of Frenchtown, about 35 miles (56 km) north of the rapids, brought a letter from a local merchant. The letter said the British had learned that the Americans were at the rapids. It also mentioned that 3,000 barrels of wheat and flour were stored in Frenchtown. Over the next three days, more people from the River Raisin settlement arrived. They told Winchester that Frenchtown was occupied by two militia companies and about 200 Indigenous warriors, but incorrectly claimed the British planned to burn the village.

After discussing with his officers, Winchester sent Lieutenant Colonel William Lewis with 570 Kentucky militiamen to Frenchtown. Later, Lieutenant Colonel John Allen joined with 110 more men. Lewis and Allen traveled to the mouth of the Maumee River, then followed the frozen shoreline of Lake Erie northward. By mid-afternoon on January 18, they reached the south side of the River Raisin, where many French-speaking residents of the settlement joined them.

Opposing the Americans were 50 men from the Essex militia, led by Major Ebenezer Reynolds. The militia was supported by one 3-inch howitzer and between 100 and 200 Potawatomi and Wyandot warriors. When Reynolds fired the howitzer, Lewis ordered an attack across the frozen river into the village. The Americans quickly forced the militia and Indigenous warriors to retreat. One source reported that the residents of Frenchtown came out of their homes with weapons and attacked the retreating Indigenous warriors. The Essex militia briefly held their ground near the edge of the woods north of the village. Lewis’s attempt to outflank them failed as Reynolds led his men into the forest, where they fought while retreating. Years later, Robert Reynolds recalled that his brother’s men “fought most bravely, [as they] retired slowly from log to log.”

William Atherton, a rifleman in Allen’s group, wrote about the battle in 1842. Atherton, who was wounded in the right shoulder during the fight, described the Essex militia’s tactics.

Lewis and Allen continued chasing Reynolds until nightfall, then returned to Frenchtown. The Essex militia and Potawatomi warriors caused many American casualties. Lewis reported 12 Americans killed and 55 wounded (two fatally). The Essex militia suffered only one casualty. Lewis also noted that two militiamen and one Potawatomi were captured, and at least 15 warriors were killed.

North of Frenchtown, two residents of the Sandy Creek settlement, René LaBeau and Jean-Baptiste Solo, were murdered after Solo taunted the retreating Potawatomi. Two of LaBeau’s children ran 2½ miles to Frenchtown to seek protection from the American army. Lewis later ordered the Sandy Creek settlement abandoned.

Second Battle of the River Raisin

On January 19, after learning that Frenchtown had been captured, Winchester led 50 volunteer soldiers and 250 regulars from the 17th and 19th U.S. Infantry toward the River Raisin, leaving 300 soldiers behind as a rear guard. The next day, they reached Frenchtown, increasing Winchester’s total force at the River Raisin to 934 soldiers. Although Winchester had not followed his orders, Harrison was happy with Lewis’s success. Harrison immediately traveled to the Maumee Rapids with more soldiers and sent a message to Winchester, telling him to “hold the ground.”

At Amherstburg, Colonel Henry Procter, who led British forces near Detroit, learned of Reynolds’s defeat early on January 19. He sent a group from the 41st Regiment of Foot, a unit from the Royal Artillery, and a group from the Provincial Marine across the Detroit River to Brownstown, where they joined Reynolds’s soldiers. The next day, they were joined by more soldiers from the 41st Regiment, the Royal Newfoundland Regiment of Fencible Infantry, and the Essex militia. Procter’s total force of 597 soldiers included 335 regulars, 212 militiamen, and 19 members of the Indian Department. His artillery included three small howitzers and three 3-pounder guns, pulled by sleds and operated by soldiers from the Royal Artillery and Provincial Marine.

About 600 Indigenous warriors, led by the Wyandot war leader Roundhead, joined the British at Brownstown. The Indigenous group included warriors from the Wyandot, Potawatomi, Odawa, Ojibwe, and Shawnee, as well as representatives from other tribes.

Winchester set up his headquarters at the home of Francois Navarre, one mile south of the village. On the evening of January 21, some residents of Frenchtown reported that a large British force was approaching. Winchester ignored their warnings and took no action, claiming it would take “several days” before the British could act. He refused to send patrols or set up guards. Most of his soldiers were camped inside the village, protected on three sides by a puncheon fence. However, the regulars from the 17th and 19th U.S. Infantry were camped outside the village in an open field to the east.

On January 21, Procter’s forces advanced to Stony Creek, about 4 miles north of the River Raisin, and stayed there overnight. They arrived at Frenchtown before dawn on January 22. Procter positioned his regular soldiers in line about 250 yards north of the village. The Odawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi were loosely grouped on Procter’s right, while the Wyandot and Shawnee stood northeast of the regulars’ camp. Procter sent two artillery pieces with a militia group to a field west of the village. He kept one gun in reserve while the other three were placed near the front of his line. The remaining militia positioned themselves near the Wyandot and Shawnee.

As Procter prepared to attack, an American drummer began playing reveille. A soldier outside the fence spotted the British and fired, killing one British soldier. Two other soldiers also shot. As the Kentucky militia rushed to take cover behind the fence, the British artillery fired but missed. The 41st Regiment and Royal Newfoundland advanced to musket range, fired a loud volley, and kept moving toward the village. The Kentucky militiamen, protected by the puncheon fence, suffered few injuries and caused heavy losses as they pushed back the British attack.

At the same time, the Wyandot, Shawnee, and militia attacked the American regulars outside the village. The 17th and 19th U.S. Infantry struggled to hold their position as musket and artillery fire hit their camp. Allen led some Kentucky soldiers from the village in an attempt to help the regulars, but it failed. Winchester, who had arrived with Lewis, ordered Allen and the regulars to retreat to the river. A second attempt to hold their ground failed, and the Americans fled across the frozen River Raisin. A second attempt to stop the enemy on the south side of the river also failed. Winchester, Allen, and Lewis were caught in the chaos as their soldiers tried to escape.

Chased by the Wyandot and Shawnee, many fleeing Americans were caught and killed. Dozens who surrendered were scalped and killed with tomahawks. Those who escaped were blocked by the Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe, who had moved from the west and set up positions at Plum Creek, about a mile south of the River Raisin. Of the roughly 400 Americans caught during the retreat, about 220 were killed, including Allen, and 147 were captured. Only 33 escaped to the Maumee River.

Winchester and Lewis were captured south of Plum Creek by Wyandot warriors. They were taken from their belongings, including Winchester’s sword, pistol, overcoat, and hat, and brought to Roundhead. Roundhead kept Winchester’s sword and wore his waistcoat before taking him and Lewis to Procter.

Meanwhile, the remaining Kentucky militia, now led by Major George Madison, stayed behind the puncheon fence, helped by local residents. They suffered few casualties and repelled two more British attacks, causing heavy losses to the British artillery and soldiers. After the third attack failed, Procter ordered his regulars to retreat and regroup behind farm buildings on the far left. To stop the British from using a barn for cover, Ensign William Butler ran to the structure twice, set it on fire, and returned unharmed to his lines despite being shot multiple times.

During a pause in the fighting, Roundtree arrived with Winchester. Procter demanded that Winchester order his soldiers to surrender. Winchester argued that he was a prisoner and could not give orders to those still fighting. When Procter threatened to have his Indigenous allies burn the village and kill its people, Winchester agreed to send a message encouraging the Kentucky militia to surrender. Despite some soldiers’ objections, Madison agreed to surrender after negotiating terms for prisoner treatment, protection from Indigenous allies, and care for the wounded. Madison later wrote that refusing would have meant “being murdered in cold blood.”

The day after the battle, Winchester reported that the British had captured 522 prisoners, with others still held by Indigenous groups. A more detailed report two weeks later stated 397 Americans were killed and 547 captured. Procter’s forces also suffered heavy losses, with 24 killed and 161 wounded. Most casualties came from the 41st Regiment, with 18 killed and 129 wounded. Indigenous casualties are unknown.

Massacre

After the surrender, Procter received a report that seemed true but was actually false, stating that Harrison was less than 8 miles (13 km) away. He ordered his forces to retreat immediately, but because there were not enough sleighs, he had to leave the seriously injured prisoners behind. The wounded were placed in two homes in the village. They were cared for by American surgeon Doctor John Todd, surgeon's mate Gustavus Bower, and several volunteers who were physically able to help. The only British soldiers present with the prisoners were two officers from the Essex militia and three interpreters from the Indian Department, all of whom left the village before sunrise. The exact number of wounded prisoners is unknown, with some sources saying as few as 48 and others as many as 80.

Procter returned to Amherstburg at midnight. No shelter was provided for the American prisoners who had traveled with the British until the next morning. A few days later, most of these prisoners were marched under guard to Fort George, located at the mouth of the Niagara River. Once there, most were released under a promise to not fight again and sent across the river to Fort Niagara. Winchester and his senior officers were sent to Quebec.

On the morning of January 23, 100 to 200 Indigenous warriors returned to Frenchtown. They entered the temporary hospitals and took the wounded's clothing and blankets. They killed those who could not walk, forced the rest outside, and burned the two buildings. Survivors were taken away, and those who struggled to keep up with their captors were killed. Most were sent to Amherstburg or Detroit and later ransomed. Others escaped or were ransomed weeks or months later. A few may have been tortured to death, while some younger prisoners were adopted into Indigenous families and never returned.

Elias Darnell, whose brother Allen was among the wounded, wrote:

Many accounts mention "drunken Indians" committing the murders, but this is debated. According to Todd: "Whiskey was not the cause of the massacre. Their careful stealing and orderly behavior were not typical of drunken Indians." More likely, the warriors were seeking revenge for attacks by Kentucky "Long Knives" on Potowatomi and Miami villages months earlier, and for the disrespectful treatment of Indigenous bodies after the battle on the 19th.

There is much uncertainty about how many people died in the massacre because survivor and habitant accounts differ. Some claimed wounded prisoners were burned alive when the two homes were set on fire, and those who tried to escape were killed with tomahawks and had their hair cut. Another account said some who were forced outside were scalped while still alive and thrown into the flames.

Later, Procter ordered an American prisoner, Ensign Isaac Baker, to investigate the massacre. Baker first identified nine victims and estimated that 15 to 18 others had been killed. He later added four officers to the total. In a report published in the Weekly Register after he was exchanged, Baker claimed 60 people died and said multiple murders happened over three days following the 23rd.

Aftermath

The Battle of Frenchtown is often called the "Raisin River Massacre." News about the fighting on January 23 was exaggerated in wartime propaganda, with political cartoons and recruitment materials showing drunken violence and scalping by "savages" helped by the British. The slogan "Remember the Raisin!" was used to encourage soldiers to join the war and became a battle cry, especially at the Battle of the Thames.

In a letter to the Secretary of War, Harrison called Winchester's defeat a "national calamity." Harrison arrived at the Maumee Rapids with reinforcements on January 20 and ordered Winchester's rear guard to move toward the River Raisin. Earlier, 200 Ohio militia had been sent from Lower Sandusky. On the morning of the battle, both groups were 15 miles (24 km) from Frenchtown when they met people who had fled the fighting. Harrison was informed and rushed forward. Soldiers who had escaped the battle were questioned by Harrison. One soldier said he saw Winchester scalped and disembowelled. After discussing with his staff, Harrison ordered all reinforcements to return but left a small group to help others who had fled.

Harrison burned Winchester's supplies at the rapids and moved his forces to the Portage River, 18 miles east. A month later, he returned to the Maumee River and began building a strong fortification named Fort Meigs. He received orders to stop attacks until warships being built at Black Rock and Erie were ready to support another attempt to retake Detroit.

Winchester was held prisoner in Quebec, Lower Canada, for over a year. He was released in an exchange in April 1814 and later assigned to command the District of Mobile.

The first reports of the massacre appeared in American newspapers after prisoners were released. Isaac Baker described seeing "dead bodies of my fellow comrades, scalped, tomahawked, and stripped" as a "horrid spectacle." He also said "some of the wounded had been scalped alive and burned in the houses." The publisher of the Weekly Register, Hezekiah Niles, claimed the British "instigated and armed the savage monsters" and "encouraged them by purchasing the scalps of our murdered citizens."

In May 1813, the United States Congress formed a committee to document and expose alleged atrocities by British forces and their Indigenous allies. The report, titled Barbarities of the Enemy, was published in newspapers and books. It included more than a dozen accounts of the massacre and was used by American politicians to rally public support for a war that had become unpopular.

Sandy Antal, author of A Wampum Denied: Procter's War of 1812, notes that American writers have "persistently demonized" the British commander. Benson Lossing's 1868 Pictorial History of the War of 1812 called Procter a "inhuman officer" who directed or allowed the murder of American prisoners. Joel Headley claimed Procter "gave unbridled license" to his allies, who "were allowed to scalp and mutilate the dead and wounded, whose bleeding corpses crimsoned the snow on every side." These claims reflect the false belief that Britain's Indigenous allies were controlled by British officers who encouraged or accepted violence.

Canadian historians have focused on Procter's failures as a military leader. Procter was held responsible for the murders only because he failed to protect prisoners after they surrendered. Ernest Cruikshank, writing in 1899, called Procter guilty of "indecision and unpardonable negligence." A century later, J. Mackay Hitsman wrote that of all British generals, "only Procter managed to blunder consistently."

At the time, British authorities praised Procter for his victory. Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, the Governor General of the Canadas, called Procter's actions "singular judgment and decisive conduct," while Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe commended him for "judgment and promptitude." The legislative assemblies of Upper and Lower Canada gave Procter a unanimous vote of thanks. Procter was appointed a brigadier general in February 1813 and later promoted to major general.

In a letter to Sheaffe, Procter acknowledged that his Indigenous allies had killed wounded prisoners: "There have been some instances I am sorry to say of Indian barbarity, but the example was set by the Enemy… I know we shall be vilified for the truth is not in them."

In September 1813, the American victory at the Battle of Lake Erie cut off British supplies, forcing Procter to abandon Amherstburg and Detroit. He retreated east along the Thames River, pursued by 3,500 American soldiers led by Harrison. Procter made a stand near Moraviantown but was defeated at the Battle of the Thames when Harrison's mounted infantry overwhelmed the British lines. At his court-martial a year later, Procter was found "erroneous in judgment and deficient in energy" during the retreat. The conviction ended Procter's military career.

Legacy and honors

Nine counties in Kentucky are named after officers who fought in the Battle of Frenchtown. Only one of these officers, Major Bland Ballard, survived the battle. The counties are:

• Allen County (named after Lieutenant Colonel John Allen)
• Ballard County (named after Major Bland Ballard)
• Edmonson County (named after Captain John Edmonson)
• Graves County (named after Major Benjamin Franklin Graves)
• Hart County (named after Captain Nathaniel Hart)
• Hickman County (named after Captain Paschal Hickman)
• McCracken County (named after Captain Phil McCracken)
• Meade County (named after Captain James M. Meade)
• Simpson County (named after Captain John Simpson)

Several streets in Monroe, Michigan, honor the Battle of Frenchtown, including Kentucky Avenue and Winchester Street.

The Kentucky War Memorial in Frankfort, Kentucky, lists the names of 12 American officers who died in the Battle of Frenchtown.

In 1904, the state of Michigan built a monument in Monroe, south of the river, to mark the burial site of unidentified victims of the River Raisin Massacre. This monument is located at the intersection of South Monroe Street and West 7th Street. That same year, the Civil Improvement Society of the Women of Monroe built an obelisk north of the river to mark the location of the battle. This marker incorrectly states that the Americans "fought desperately against 3000 British and Allies under Gen. Proctor."

The battlefield was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. In March 2009, the United States Congress approved the creation of River Raisin National Battlefield Park. The park opened in October 2010. It is one of only four National Battlefield Parks in the United States and the only one that honors events from the War of 1812.

• This obelisk, located in River Raisin National Battlefield Park, honors the victims of the battle and the massacre that followed.
• This monument, located south of the River Raisin, honors the Kentuckians who died in the battle.