The Battle of Fallen Timbers, which happened on August 20, 1794, was the last major fight of the Northwest Indian War. This war was a conflict between the Northwestern Confederacy, a group of Native American tribes, and the United States, who fought over control of the Northwest Territory. The battle occurred near the Maumee River in northwestern Ohio, where many trees had been knocked down by a tornado. This area is now part of the city of Maumee, Ohio.
Major General Anthony Wayne led the United States forces, including General Charles Scott’s Kentucky militia. They defeated a group of Native American warriors, including Shawnee led by Blue Jacket and Ottawas led by Egushawa, among others. The battle lasted less than an hour but caused the Native American forces to retreat.
The United States victory ended most fighting in the region. After the battle, the Treaty of Greenville and the Jay Treaty required Native American tribes to leave much of modern-day Ohio. This allowed White Americans to settle there and also led to the British leaving the southern Great Lakes area of the United States.
Prelude
In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolutionary War. Great Britain gave up rights to the area northwest of the Ohio River and south of the Great Lakes. Even though the treaty gave the Northwest Territory to the United States, the British kept soldiers in their forts and supported Native Americans to slow American expansion. After the war, European-American settlers moved west of the Appalachians. In 1785, a group led by the Huron tribe formed to resist the loss of Native American lands, claiming that the area north and west of the Ohio River belonged to Native Americans. The young United States organized the region with the Land Ordinance of 1785 and made treaties allowing settlement. However, Native American nations were not part of these treaties and refused to accept them. Fighting broke out between Native Americans and U.S. settlers in the region and in Kentucky.
During George Washington's first term as President, the U.S. launched two major campaigns to control the Western Confederacy and protect settlers from Native American attacks. The Harmar campaign in 1790 led to a major victory for the confederacy and a U.S. retreat to Fort Washington. In May 1791, Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson led a raid at the Battle of Kenapacomaqua. He killed 9 Wea and Miami people and captured 34 Miami, including the daughter of Miami war chief Little Turtle. Some confederacy leaders were considering peace, but news of Wilkinson's raid made them prepare for war. This action united the tribes against St. Clair. In 1791, a campaign led by territorial governor Arthur St. Clair was heavily defeated by Native American forces.
After this defeat, the area became vulnerable to attacks by the British or their Native American allies. The U.S. sent envoys to negotiate peace with the Confederacy. President Washington ordered Major General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to recruit and train a stronger force. If peace failed, Wayne was to enforce U.S. control over the region. Wayne led about 2,000 soldiers, with scouts from the Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes. In 1793, Wayne moved his Legion from Pennsylvania to Fort Washington, naming the camp "Hobson's Choice" because they had no other options.
When Wayne learned that the confederacy had not reached peace with U.S. negotiators, he moved his army into Native American territory. In November, the Legion built a new fort north of Fort Jefferson, which Wayne named Fort Greeneville. The Legion spent the winter there, but Wayne sent 300 soldiers to build Fort Recovery at the site of St. Clair's defeat to reclaim lost cannons. In response, the British built Fort Miami to block Wayne's advance and protect Fort Lernoult in Detroit. By January 1794, Wayne reported that 8 companies and a detachment of artillery had taken control of St. Clair's battleground and built a small fort. By June, Fort Recovery was reinforced, and the Legion recovered four cannons, two howitzers, and one iron carronade. The fort was attacked, and though the Legion suffered heavy losses, they held control. This battle revealed disagreements within the confederacy.
Before leaving Fort Recovery, Wayne sent a peace offer with two captured prisoners to the confederacy leaders at Roche de Bout. The leaders debated. Little Turtle called Wayne "the Chief who never sleeps" and suggested negotiating peace. Blue Jacket mocked Little Turtle as a traitor and argued that Wayne would fail, as previous leaders had. Little Turtle then stepped down, letting Blue Jacket lead. The British, noticing the confederacy's divisions, sent more soldiers to Fort Miami on the Maumee River.
On August 17, Wayne left Fort Recovery and advanced north, supported by about 1,000 Kentucky militia under General Charles Scott. Native American scouts noted that the Legion only marched until early afternoon, then built fortified camps, making attacks harder than in past U.S. campaigns. The Legion constructed Fort Adams and Fort Defiance, named by Scott with the declaration, "I defy the English, Indians, and all the devils of hell to take it." As the Legion approached Fort Miami, Wayne built Fort Deposit as a baggage camp to allow the Legion to fight as light infantry.
Battle
Captain William Wells, who was the son-in-law of Little Turtle and led Wayne's intelligence team, was injured along with some of his spies after they were discovered spying in a Native American camp on the night of August 11. The Choctaw and Chickasaw scouts left the Legion at Fort Defiance after seeing how ill Wayne had become during the campaign. Because of this, Wayne ordered Captain George Shrim, who led the Legion's ranger detachment, to lead a group of mounted scouts. On August 18, Native American forces captured one of the scouts, William May, from whom they learned that Wayne planned to attack on August 19, unless he stopped to build a supply depot, in which case he would attack on August 20. Alexander McKee advised the confederacy to choose a suitable battlefield, as they now knew the attack date. Suspecting that Wayne would march along the Maumee River, Blue Jacket took a defensive position near present-day Toledo, Ohio, where a group of trees (called the "fallen timbers") had been knocked down by a storm. The tangled debris stretched for nearly a mile, and the thick brush formed a natural barrier that protected the confederate warriors. The Native American forces, numbering about 1,500, included Blue Jacket's Shawnees, Delawares led by Buckongahelas, Miamis led by Little Turtle, Wyandots led by Tarhe and Roundhead, Ojibwas, Odawa led by Egushawa, Potawatomi led by Little Otter, Mingos, a small group of Mohawks, and a company of Canadian militiamen dressed as Native Americans under Lieutenant-Colonel William Caldwell. After setting up their positions starting on August 17–18, the Native forces fasted in preparation for battle.
Brigadier General Wilkinson urged Wayne to attack quickly before the Native forces could gather, but Wayne decided to strengthen Fort Deposit. On August 19, Wayne sent a group of mounted scouts led by Major William Price to explore the area. They saw several Native positions, but no fighting occurred. At the end of the day, a Native council met and decided that since Wayne might take several days to prepare for battle, their warriors would be allowed to eat the next morning.
The Legion advanced early the next morning, August 20, while the Native Americans were on their third day of fasting. Because of morning rain, many warriors in the confederacy believed there would be no battle and returned to Fort Miami to break their fast. Suspecting an attack, Wayne ordered the Legion to march in tight groups and placed dragoons and artillery in the center of the column so they could respond to attacks from any direction. A group of Kentucky militia led the column and had trouble with the terrain. The lead scouts were about 100 yards into the battlefield when the Odawas and Potawatomis under Little Otter and Egushawa fired the first shot, scattering the militia. Behind the militia were two companies of infantry from the 4th Sub-Legion under Captain John Cook, who fired at the Kentuckians, thinking they were running away. Soon, however, Cook's group fled as Native warriors began fighting hand-to-hand.
The fleeing U.S. forces ran toward the left side of the Legion's column, where Lieutenant-Colonel Jean François Hamtramck commanded the 2nd and 4th Sub-Legions. They broke through Captain Howell Lewis' company, which did not fire a shot. Hamtramck formed his troops into two ranks to stop the advancing warriors, many of whom had only tomahawks and knives. General Wilkinson arranged the 1st and 3rd Sub-Legions into a single line covering 800 yards on the right side. Wayne rushed to the sound of gunfire and sent two light infantry companies from the center ahead of each wing to stop any Native advances until the lines were ready. Artillery was brought forward and fired grapeshot at the Native line. Blue Jacket's well-organized ambush became disordered as the center moved forward while the wings stayed in place. When asked for orders by his aide-de-camp, Lieutenant William Henry Harrison, Wayne said, "Charge the damned rascals with the bayonet!"
Captain Robert Campbell led his dragoon company across 60–100 yards with swords drawn. Nearly a dozen dragoons were shot, and Captain Campbell was killed. Wilkinson's infantry slowly advanced to support the dragoons, and the Odawas and Potawatomis ran back to their positions. The pursuit was so weak that Wilkinson feared a trap and waited for Wayne's instructions.
Meanwhile, Hamtramck moved forward and met the Wyandots, Lenape, and Canadians. A heavy exchange of fire happened, and the Native forces tried to flank the 4th Sub-Legion. Instead, a group of Kentucky militia under Brigadier General Robert Todd quickly moved through the swamp and flanked the Canadians. The 4th Sub-Legion chased them with bayonets fixed. The Native forces retreated from their positions and could not regroup in the rough terrain.
Wilkinson eventually moved cautiously along the ridge above the Maumee River. On the way to Fort Miami, the Native forces had to cross a ravine. The Odawas and Potawatomis tried to regroup here. Egushawa, who was in charge, was wounded when shot in the eye. Little Otter was seriously hurt and was placed on a white horse and taken away to avoid capture. Another Odawa chief, Turkey Foot, stood on a large rock and encouraged the warriors to fight, but he was shot in the chest and died quickly. According to Alexander McKee, the loss of many Native leaders made their losses seem greater than they were, and many warriors fled to Fort Miami.
Beyond the ravine, the land was more open, allowing the Legion to move faster and giving dragoons an advantage over dismounted warriors. McKee, Matthew Elliot, and Simon Girty tried to rally the retreating forces one last time, but they were ignored. The retreat became a disorderly escape, except for the protection provided by the Canadians and Wyandots.
The entire battle lasted one hour and ten minutes. The Native warriors fled toward Fort Miami but found the gates closed. Major William Campbell, who commanded Fort Miami, had shut the gates when the first warriors arrived and when gunfire was heard. He refused to open the gates now, not wanting to start a war with the United States. The remaining Native forces continued north and reunited near Swan Creek, where their families were camped. McKee tried to rally them again, but they refused to fight, especially after Campbell's refusal to let them into Fort Miami.
Wayne's army lost 33 men and had about 100 wounded. They reported finding 30–40 dead warriors. Alexander McKee, an official of the British Indian Department, reported that the Native confederacy lost 19 warriors killed, including Chief Turkey Foot of the Ottawa. Six
Aftermath
During the campaign, General James Wilkinson, who was second in command to Wayne, worked secretly to harm him. He sent anonymous letters to newspapers and politicians in Washington, D.C., criticizing Wayne. Wayne did not know about this because Wilkinson was recorded as being very polite to him in person. At the same time, Wilkinson was a Spanish spy and was hired as an officer. Even though the U.S. suffered many losses, Wilkinson considered the battle at Fallen Timbers to be just a small fight. He said the short battle "did not deserve the name of a battle." Years later, a Native American warrior said that Little Turtle had warned that the Great Spirit would hide in a cloud if they did not make peace with Wayne. The rainy start to the day was a sign that they would lose.
Parties began asking for peace in December. Antoine Lasselle arrived at Fort Wayne on December 17 with a group of Native Americans and Canadiens. Within a month, most Miami people had returned to Kekionga, and representatives of the Potawatomi, Ojibwe, Odawa, and Wyandotte had sought out the Legion to "bury the hatchet." During the summer of 1795, the confederacy met with a U.S. delegation led by General Wayne to negotiate the Treaty of Greenville, which was signed on August 3. This treaty allowed most of the modern U.S. state of Ohio to be settled. It used the site of St. Clair's defeat as a reference point to draw a line near the current border of Ohio and Indiana. The Treaty of Greenville, along with Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty, set the terms of the peace and defined post-colonial relations among the U.S., Britain, and Spain.
Henry Knox eventually told Wayne about Wilkinson's letters, and Wayne began an investigation. Wayne's suspicions were confirmed when Spanish couriers were caught with payments for Wilkinson. He tried to have Wilkinson tried in a military trial for his betrayal. However, Wayne developed a stomach ulcer and complications from gout and died on December 15, 1796, at Fort Presque Isle. There was no trial. Instead, Wilkinson began his first job as Senior Officer of the Army, which lasted about a year and a half. He continued to share information with the Spanish in exchange for large amounts of gold.
For many years after the battle, Odawas visited the battle site and left memorials at Turkey Foot Rock.
The Northwest region remained mostly peaceful until the War of 1812. Wayne's aide-de-camp, William Henry Harrison, became territorial secretary, then a member of Congress, and was appointed as governor of the Indiana Territory in 1801. He followed Thomas Jefferson's policy of buying land from Native American nations gradually. Tecumseh, a young Shawnee who had fought in the Battle of Fallen Timbers and refused to sign the Treaty of Greenville, resisted this gradual removal by forming a new group of tribes. Harrison attacked this group in the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe.
Many veterans of the Battle of Fallen Timbers later became well-known for their accomplishments. These included William Clark, who co-led the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and William Henry Harrison, the 9th President of the United States. Tecumseh, who watched his older brother Sauwauseekau die in battle, later organized a new group to oppose American efforts to remove Native American tribes.
Legacy
On September 14, 1929, the United States Post Office Department released a stamp to mark the 135th anniversary of the Battle of Fallen Timbers. This stamp was part of a series called the "Two Cent Reds" by collectors. These stamps were created to honor the 150th anniversaries of events during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and to recognize those who participated in these events. The stamp features an image of the Battle of Fallen Timbers Monument, which was dedicated in the same year as the stamp’s release.
For 200 years, people believed the battlefield was located on the floodplain along the Maumee River. This belief was based on maps and other documents. In 1995 and 2001, Dr. G. Michael Pratt, a scientist and teacher at Heidelberg University in Ohio, discovered that the actual battlefield was 1/4 mile above the floodplain. He made this finding after studying descriptions of a ravine in historical records. The City of Toledo owned the land, which was valuable for development. At first, the city did not allow archaeologists to study the area. However, Pratt was able to conduct surveys using tools like metal detectors. These surveys uncovered items such as musket balls, parts of muskets, uniform buttons, and a bayonet, proving that fighting had taken place there.
Because of Pratt’s research and efforts with the Fallen Timbers Preservation Commission, the land was given National Historic Site status in 1999. A federal grant allowed the Metroparks of the Toledo Area to buy the land where the artifacts were found in 2001. The site was then developed into a park in partnership with the National Park Service.
The Ohio Historical Society maintains a small park at the location once thought to be where most of the battle happened. This park includes the Battle of Fallen Timbers Monument, which honors Major General Anthony Wayne and his army, as well as Little Turtle and his warriors. Plaques in the park describe the battle and recognize the Native American tribes that fought there. The main monument has inscriptions on each of its four sides, honoring Wayne, the soldiers who died, Little Turtle, and his warriors. The park is near Maumee in Lucas County. Turkey Foot Rock, which marks the place where Turkey Foot died, is also located at the site.