The Battle of Frenchtown, also called the Battle of the River Raisin and the River Raisin Massacre, was two battles that happened during the War of 1812. American soldiers led by Brigadier General James Winchester fought against British and Indigenous forces commanded by Colonel Henry Procter on January 18 and 22, 1813, near Frenchtown, Michigan Territory (now Monroe, Michigan). This location is on the River Raisin, about 35 miles (56 km) southwest of Detroit.

On January 18, American militia drove back a British and Indigenous group that had taken control of Frenchtown. This attack was part of a plan to recapture Detroit after it was lost during a siege the previous summer. Four days later, on January 22, the British and their Indigenous allies surprised the American forces. Because the Americans were not ready, they lost 397 soldiers in this second battle, and 547 were captured. The next morning, some wounded prisoners were killed by Indigenous warriors, and others were killed while being taken to Fort Amherstburg. The Battle of Frenchtown was the deadliest battle in Michigan’s history and the battle with the most American deaths during the War of 1812.

Some parts of the original battlefield were named a state historic park and added to the National Register of Historic Places. In 2009, the United States Congress approved the creation of the River Raisin National Battlefield Park, one of four such parks in the nation and the only one that honors the War of 1812.

Naming

The Battle of Frenchtown happened in and around the Frenchtown Settlement, which was established in 1784 on the River Raisin in the Michigan Territory. The area where the battle took place is now part of the city of Monroe. Some sources use the name "Battle of Frenchtown" only for the fighting that happened on January 22, 1813, and call the earlier fighting on January 18 the "First Battle of the River Raisin" or describe it as a prelude to the larger battle on January 22. The term "Battles of Frenchtown" is also used to describe the entire conflict that occurred from January 18 to January 22. While fighting happened on January 18, the most intense fighting took place on January 22. These two battles are also known as the "Battle of the River Raisin" because they occurred near that river.

The engagement can be divided into the First Battle of the River Raisin (January 18) and the Second Battle of the River Raisin (January 22). The term "River Raisin Massacre" refers to events on January 23, the day after the second battle, when Indigenous warriors killed many injured American soldiers who had been left behind by the British after they withdrew from Frenchtown.

Background

On August 17, 1812, Brigadier General William Hull, leading the American Army of the Northwest, surrendered his army, Detroit, and the Michigan Territory to the British after the siege of Detroit. This victory encouraged many Indigenous leaders in the Indiana and Illinois territories to support the British during the war.

After Hull’s defeat, Brigadier General James Winchester took command of the Army of the Northwest. He was later replaced by Major General William Henry Harrison, with Winchester serving as his second-in-command. Winchester was ordered to lead 1,200 soldiers from Fort Wayne to the Maumee Rapids (now Perrysburg, Ohio). Meanwhile, Harrison gathered more troops and supplies at Upper Sandusky before joining Winchester at the rapids to march toward Detroit.

British forces near Detroit were led by Colonel Henry Procter. In December 1813, Procter’s forces included 270 soldiers from the 41st Regiment of Foot, 70 soldiers from the Royal Newfoundland Regiment, 25 artillerymen, and a small support team. Most were stationed at Amherstburg, but 114 soldiers under Captain Adam Muir were stationed in Detroit. Procter could also rely on soldiers from the Essex militia and the Provincial Marine.

The Wyandot, Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe peoples living in the area supported the British. Amherstburg was also home to about 800 Indigenous refugees whose villages had been destroyed by Harrison’s forces in September 1812.

First Battle of the River Raisin

On January 10, 1813, General Winchester arrived at the Maumee Rapids with about 1,300 soldiers and Kentucky militia. His instructions were to wait at the rapids for General Harrison to arrive with more troops from Upper Sandusky before moving toward Detroit. On January 13, two residents from Frenchtown, about 35 miles (56 km) north of the rapids, brought a letter from a local merchant. The letter said the British had learned that American forces were at the rapids. It also mentioned that 3,000 barrels of wheat and flour were stored in Frenchtown. Over the next three days, more residents from the River Raisin settlement arrived. They told Winchester that Frenchtown was occupied by two groups of militia and about 200 Indigenous warriors. However, they incorrectly claimed the British were planning to burn the village.

After discussing with his officers, Winchester decided to send Lieutenant Colonel William Lewis with 570 Kentucky militiamen to Frenchtown. Later, Lieutenant Colonel John Allen joined with 110 additional soldiers. Lewis and Allen traveled to the mouth of the Maumee River, then followed the frozen shoreline of Lake Erie northward. By mid-afternoon on January 18, they reached the south side of the River Raisin, where many French-speaking residents of the settlement joined them.

Opposing the Americans were 50 soldiers from the Essex militia, led by Major Ebenezer Reynolds. The militia was supported by a single 3-inch howitzer and between 100 and 200 Potawatomi and Wyandot warriors. When Reynolds fired the howitzer, Lewis ordered his troops to cross the frozen river and attack the village. The Americans quickly forced the militia and Indigenous warriors to retreat. Some sources say that residents of the village then came out of their homes and fought the retreating Indigenous warriors. The Essex militia briefly held their position near the edge of the woods north of the village. Lewis’s attempt to outflank them failed because Reynolds moved his men into the forest, where they fought while retreating. Years later, Robert Reynolds recalled that his brother’s soldiers “fought most bravely, [as they] retired slowly from log to log.”

William Atherton, a rifleman in Allen’s group, wrote about the battle in 1842. Atherton was wounded in the right shoulder during the fighting. He described how the Essex militia fought.

Lewis and Allen continued chasing Reynolds until nightfall, then returned to Frenchtown. The Essex militia and Potawatomi warriors had caused many American casualties. Lewis reported 12 American soldiers killed and 55 wounded (two of whom died). The Essex militia suffered only one casualty. Lewis also said that two militiamen and one Potawatomi warrior were captured, and at least 15 warriors were killed.

North of Frenchtown, two residents of the Sandy Creek settlement, René LaBeau and Jean-Baptiste Solo, were murdered after Solo taunted retreating Potawatomi warriors. Two of LaBeau’s children ran 2½ miles to Frenchtown to seek help from the American army. Lewis later ordered the Sandy Creek settlement to be abandoned.

Second Battle of the River Raisin

On January 19, after learning that Frenchtown had been captured, Winchester led a group of 50 militia volunteers and 250 soldiers from the 17th and 19th U.S. Infantry toward the River Raisin. He left 300 men behind as a rear guard. The next day, they reached Frenchtown, increasing Winchester’s total force at the River Raisin to 934 men. Although Winchester had not followed his orders, Harrison was pleased with Lewis’s success. Harrison immediately sent reinforcements to the Maumee Rapids and sent a messenger to Winchester, telling him to “hold the ground.”

At Amherstburg, Colonel Henry Procter, the British commander on the Detroit frontier, learned of Reynolds’s defeat early on January 19. He sent a group from the 41st Regiment of Foot, a unit from the Royal Artillery, and a group from the Provincial Marine across the Detroit River to Brownstown, where they joined Reynolds’s men. The next day, more soldiers from the 41st Regiment, the Royal Newfoundland Regiment of Fencible Infantry, and the Essex militia arrived. Procter’s total force of 597 men included 335 regular soldiers, 212 militiamen, and 19 members of the Indian Department. His artillery included three small howitzers and three 3-pounder guns, pulled by sleds and operated by soldiers from the Royal Artillery and Provincial Marine.

About 600 Indigenous warriors, led by the Wyandot war leader Roundhead, joined the British at Brownstown. The Indigenous group included warriors from the Wyandot, Potawatomi, Odawa, Ojibwe, and Shawnee, as well as representatives from other tribes.

Winchester set up his headquarters at the home of Francois Navarre, one mile south of the village. On the evening of January 21, some residents of Frenchtown reported that a large British force was approaching. Winchester ignored their warnings and did not take any precautions, saying it would be “some days” before the British “would be ready to do anything.” He did not send out patrols or set up defenses. Most of his men were camped inside the village, protected on three sides by a wooden fence. However, the regulars from the 17th and 19th U.S. Infantry were camped outside the village in an open field to the east.

On January 21, Procter’s force moved to Stony Creek, about 4 miles north of the River Raisin, and stayed there overnight. They reached Frenchtown before dawn on January 22. Procter quietly lined up his regular soldiers about 250 yards north of the village. The Odawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi were loosely grouped on Procter’s right, while the Wyandot and Shawnee positioned themselves northeast of the regulars’ camp. Procter sent two artillery pieces and a militia group to a field west of the village. He kept one gun in reserve, while the other three were placed in front of his line. The remaining militia took positions near the Wyandot and Shawnee.

As Procter prepared to attack, an American drummer began playing reveille. A soldier on duty outside the fence saw the British and fired, killing one British soldier. Two other soldiers also fired their weapons. As the Kentucky militia rushed to take cover behind the fence, the British artillery opened fire but missed their targets. The 41st Regiment and Royal Newfoundland moved close enough to fire muskets, then advanced toward the village. The Kentucky militiamen, protected by the wooden fence, suffered few injuries and caused heavy losses as they pushed back the British attack.

At the same time, the Wyandot, Shawnee, and militia attacked the American regulars east of the village. The 17th and 19th U.S. Infantry struggled to hold their position as musket and artillery fire hit their camp. Allen led several groups of Kentucky soldiers from the village in an attempt to help them, but it failed. Winchester, who had arrived with Lewis, ordered Allen and the regulars to retreat to the river. A second attempt to hold their ground failed, and the Americans fled across the frozen River Raisin. A second effort to stop the enemy on the south side of the river also failed. Winchester, Allen, and Lewis were caught in the chaos as their men tried to escape.

Many fleeing Americans were caught and killed by the Wyandot and Shawnee. Dozens who surrendered were attacked with tomahawks and had their hair scalped. Those who escaped were blocked by the Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe, who had moved around from the west and set up positions at Plum Creek, about a mile south of the River Raisin. Of the roughly 400 Americans caught in the retreat, about 220 were killed, including Allen, and 147 were captured. Only 33 managed to escape to the Maumee River.

Winchester and Lewis were captured south of Plum Creek by Wyandot warriors. They were taken from their belongings, including Winchester’s sword, pistol, overcoat, and hat, and brought to Roundhead. Roundhead kept Winchester’s sword and wore his waistcoat before taking him and Lewis to Procter.

Meanwhile, the remaining Kentucky militia, now led by Major George Madison, continued to defend their position behind the wooden fence, with help from some residents. They suffered few losses and repelled two more attacks, causing heavy damage to British artillery and soldiers. After the third attack failed, Procter ordered his soldiers to retreat and regroup behind a group of farm buildings on the far left. To prevent the British from using a barn for cover, Ensign William Butler ran to the building twice to set it on fire. Despite being shot multiple times, he succeeded in destroying the barn and returned safely to his lines.

During a pause in the fighting, Roundtree arrived with Winchester. Procter demanded that Winchester order his men to surrender unconditionally. Winchester argued that he was a prisoner and could not give orders to those still fighting. When Procter threatened to have his Indigenous allies burn the village and kill everyone inside, Winchester agreed to send a message encouraging the Kentucky militia to surrender. Despite some soldiers’ objections, Madison agreed to surrender after negotiating terms about treating prisoners, protecting them from Indigenous allies, and caring for the

Massacre

Shortly after the surrender, Procter received a report that seemed true but was not. It said Harrison was less than 8 miles (13 km) away. Procter ordered a quick retreat, but there were not enough sleighs to carry all the seriously injured prisoners. These wounded people were placed in two homes in the village. They were cared for by American surgeon Doctor John Todd, surgeon's mate Gustavus Bower, and some volunteers who were healthy enough to help. The only British soldiers with the prisoners were two officers from the Essex militia and three interpreters from the Indian Department. All of them left the village before sunrise. The exact number of wounded prisoners is unknown. Some sources say as few as 48, while others say as many as 80.

Procter returned to Amherstburg at midnight. No shelter was given to the American prisoners who had traveled with the British until the next morning. A few days later, most of these prisoners were marched to Fort George, which is at the mouth of the Niagara River. Once there, many were paroled and sent across the river to Fort Niagara. Winchester and his top officers were sent to Quebec.

On the morning of January 23, 100 to 200 Indigenous warriors returned to Frenchtown. They entered the temporary hospitals and took the wounded’s clothing and blankets. They killed those who could not walk, forced the rest outside, and burned the two buildings. Survivors were taken away, but those who could not keep up with the captors were killed. Most were sent to Amherstburg or Detroit and later ransomed. Others escaped or were ransomed weeks or months later. A few may have been tortured to death, and some younger prisoners were adopted into Indigenous families and never returned.

Elias Darnell, whose brother Allen was among the wounded, wrote:

Some accounts say "drunken Indians" committed the murders, but this is not certain. According to Todd: "Whiskey was not the cause of the massacre. Their careful actions and the way they took things were not like those of drunken people." It is more likely the warriors were trying to punish the Kentucky "Long Knives" for attacks on Potowatomi and Miami villages a few months earlier and for the disrespect shown to Indigenous bodies after the battle on the 19th.

There is confusion about how many people died in the massacre because survivors and habitants gave different stories. Some said wounded prisoners were burned alive when the two homes were set on fire, and others who tried to escape were killed with tomahawks and had their hair cut. Another account said some people who were forced outside were scalped while still alive and thrown into the flames.

Later, Procter asked an American prisoner, Ensign Isaac Baker, to find out how many people died in the massacre. Baker first named nine victims and guessed 15 to 18 others were killed. Later, he added four officers to the total. In a story published in the Weekly Register after he was released, Baker said 60 people died and claimed many more were killed in the three days after January 23.

Aftermath

The Battle of Frenchtown is often called the "Raisin River Massacre." News of the fighting on January 23 was quickly made more dramatic in wartime materials, such as political cartoons and recruitment posters. These materials showed drunken violence and scalping by "savages" helped by British soldiers. The slogan "Remember the Raisin!" was used to encourage soldiers to join the army and became a battle cry, especially at the Battle of the Thames.

In a letter to the Secretary of War, William Henry Harrison called the defeat at Frenchtown a "national calamity." Harrison had arrived with extra soldiers at the Maumee Rapids on January 20 and ordered the rear guard of the defeated force to move toward the River Raisin. Earlier, 200 Ohio militia members had been sent from Lower Sandusky. On the morning of the battle, both groups were within 15 miles of Frenchtown when they met people who had fled the fighting. Harrison was informed and rushed forward. Some soldiers who had escaped the battle arrived and told Harrison what happened. One soldier said he saw the defeated commander, Winchester, scalped and cut open. After discussing with his officers, Harrison ordered all reinforcements to return but left a small group to help others who had fled the battle.

Harrison burned supplies left by Winchester at the rapids and moved his forces to the Portage River, 18 miles east. A month later, he returned to the Maumee River and began building a strong fort, named Fort Meigs. He was ordered to stop attacking until warships being built at Black Rock and Erie were ready to help retake Detroit.

Winchester was held as a prisoner in Quebec, Lower Canada, for over a year. He was released in an exchange in April 1814 and later led the District of Mobile.

The first reports of the massacre appeared in American newspapers after prisoners were released. One soldier, Isaac Baker, described seeing the bodies of his comrades, scalped, tomahawked, and stripped, which he called a "horrid spectacle." He also said some wounded soldiers were scalped alive and burned in houses. The publisher of the Weekly Register, Hezekiah Niles, claimed the British not only armed Indigenous allies but also paid for the scalps of American victims.

In May 1813, the U.S. Congress created a committee to investigate and expose alleged crimes by British forces and their Indigenous allies. A report titled Barbarities of the Enemy was published in newspapers and books. It included over a dozen accounts of the massacre and was used by American leaders to gain public support for a war that had become unpopular.

Sandy Antal, author of A Wampum Denied: Procter's War of 1812, wrote that American writers often "persistently demonized" the British commander, Procter. For example, Benson Lossing's 1868 book Pictorial History of the War of 1812 called Procter an "inhuman officer" who allowed the murder of American prisoners. Joel Headley claimed Procter "gave unbridled license" to his allies, who "were allowed to scalp and mutilate the dead and wounded." These claims ignored the fact that British officers did not control Indigenous allies and that the actions were not officially sanctioned.

Canadian historians focused on Procter's failures as a military leader. He was blamed for not protecting prisoners after they surrendered. In 1899, Ernest Cruikshank called Procter guilty of "indecision and unpardonable negligence." A century later, J. Mackay Hitsman wrote that Procter was the only British general who "blundered consistently."

At the time, British officials praised Procter for his victory. Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, the Governor General of the Canadas, called Procter's actions "singular judgment and decisive conduct." Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe commended Procter for his "judgment and promptitude." The governments of Upper and Lower Canada gave Procter a unanimous vote of thanks. He was promoted to brigadier general in February 1813 and later to major general.

In a letter to Sheaffe, Procter admitted that some of his Indigenous allies had killed wounded prisoners: "There have been some instances I am sorry to say of Indian barbarity, but the example was set by the Enemy… I know we shall be vilified for the truth is not in them."

In September 1813, the American victory at the Battle of Lake Erie cut off British supplies, forcing Procter to abandon Amherstburg and Detroit. He retreated east along the Thames River, pursued by American forces led by Harrison. Procter made a stand near Moraviantown but was defeated at the Battle of the Thames when Harrison's mounted soldiers overwhelmed British lines. At his court martial a year later, Procter was found to have made "erroneous judgments and been deficient in energy" during the retreat. The ruling ended his military career.

Legacy and honors

Nine counties in Kentucky are named after officers who fought in the Battle of Frenchtown. Only one of these officers, Major Bland Ballard, survived the battle:

• Allen County (named after Lieutenant Colonel John Allen)
• Ballard County (named after Major Bland Ballard)
• Edmonson County (named after Captain John Edmonson)
• Graves County (named after Major Benjamin Franklin Graves)
• Hart County (named after Captain Nathaniel Hart)
• Hickman County (named after Captain Paschal Hickman)
• McCracken County (named after Captain Phil McCracken)
• Meade County (named after Captain James M. Meade)
• Simpson County (named after Captain John Simpson)

Some streets in Monroe, Michigan, honor the Battle of Frenchtown, including Kentucky Avenue and Winchester Street.

The Kentucky War Memorial in Frankfort, Kentucky, lists the names of 12 American officers who died during the Battle of Frenchtown.

In 1904, the state of Michigan built a monument in Monroe, south of the river, to mark the burial site of unidentified victims of the River Raisin Massacre. The monument is located at the intersection of South Monroe Street and West 7th Street. That same year, the Civil Improvement Society of the Women of Monroe built an obelisk north of the river to mark the battle site. This marker incorrectly states that the Americans "fought desperately against 3000 British and Allies under Gen. Proctor."

The battlefield was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. In March 2009, the United States Congress approved the creation of River Raisin National Battlefield Park. The park opened in October 2010. It is one of only four National Battlefield Parks in the United States and the only one to honor the War of 1812.

• This obelisk, located in River Raisin National Battlefield Park, honors the victims of the battle and the massacre that followed.
• This monument, south of the River Raisin, honors the Kentuckians who died in the battle.