The Battle of Fort Dearborn, also known as the Fort Dearborn Massacre, was a fight between United States soldiers, militia members, and Miami Native American allies against Potawatomi Native Americans. It happened on August 15, 1812, near Fort Dearborn, which was then part of the Illinois Territory in the Chicago area. This battle was part of the War of 1812 and occurred after the commander of the United States Army of the Northwest, William Hull, ordered the fort to be evacuated. The battle lasted about 15 minutes and ended with a total victory for the Native Americans. After the battle, Fort Dearborn was burned. Some soldiers and settlers who were captured were later freed after payment.
After the battle, the federal government decided that Native Americans needed to be removed from the territory and areas near settlements because more settlers were moving there. The fort was rebuilt in 1816.
Background
Fort Dearborn was built by U.S. soldiers led by Captain John Whistler in 1803. It was located on the south side of the Chicago River, near what is now the Loop area of downtown Chicago. At the time, the area was considered wild and far from cities. A later commander, Heald, described it as "so remote from the civilized part of the world." The fort was named after Henry Dearborn, who was the U.S. Secretary of War. It was built after the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795) and the Treaty of Greenville, signed on August 3, 1795, at Fort Greenville (now Greenville, Ohio). Under the treaty terms, a group of Native Americans and settlers, called the Western Confederacy, gave the U.S. large parts of modern-day Ohio and other land, including 6 square miles (16 km²) near the mouth of the Chicago River.
The British had given the Northwest Territory—now including Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota—to the U.S. in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. However, Native American nations and the U.S. had disagreements over land rights since the Northwest Ordinance in 1787. Native American leaders, including Tenskwatawa (a Shawnee prophet and brother of Tecumseh), wanted to drive out settlers they called "children of the Evil Spirit." Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a group of tribes to stop American expansion. The British supported Native Americans by giving them weapons, which worsened tensions between the U.S. and Britain. Native American attacks made it harder for Americans to access farmland, minerals, and fur trading areas.
In 1810, Captain Whistler and other officers at Fort Dearborn were removed from their positions. He was replaced by Captain Nathan Heald, who had previously worked at Fort Wayne, Indiana. Heald did not like his new job and asked for time off to spend the winter in Massachusetts. After returning, he visited Kentucky, where he married Rebekah Wells, the daughter of Samuel Wells. He and his wife then traveled to Fort Dearborn in June 1811.
As the U.S. and Britain approached war, tensions between settlers and Native Americans near Fort Dearborn grew. In 1811, British representatives tried to convince Native Americans in the area to resist American settlers. On April 6, 1812, a group of Winnebago Indians killed two men—Liberty White and John B. Cardin—at a farm called Hardscrabble, located on the south branch of the Chicago River (now Bridgeport). A soldier named John Kelso and a boy who escaped the farm brought news of the murder to Fort Dearborn. After the killing, some settlers moved into the fort, while others took shelter in a house once owned by Charles Jouett, a Native American agent. Captain Heald organized 15 civilian men into a militia and gave them guns and supplies from the fort.
Battle
On June 18, 1812, the United States started a war against the British Empire. On July 17, British soldiers captured Fort Mackinac, which is near the north coast of Lake Michigan. On July 29, General William Hull learned that Fort Mackinac had been taken and immediately ordered Major James Heald to leave Fort Dearborn, which is near the south coast of Lake Michigan. Hull was worried that Fort Dearborn would not have enough supplies to stay safe. In a letter sent on August 9, Hull told Heald to destroy all weapons and ammunition and to give remaining supplies to friendly Native Americans in the hope that they would help guide the group to Fort Wayne. Hull also sent a copy of these orders to Fort Wayne, which is southeast of Lake Michigan, with instructions to provide Heald with information and help.
On August 12 or 13, Captain William Wells, who was the uncle of Heald’s wife, Rebekah, gathered about 30 Miami Native Americans. Wells, Corporal Walter K. Jordan, and the Miamis traveled to Fort Dearborn to help protect the people leaving the fort.
On August 14, Heald met with Potawatomi leaders to tell them about the planned evacuation. The Native Americans believed Heald had promised to give them weapons, food, and money if they helped escort the group to Fort Wayne. However, Heald ordered all extra weapons, ammunition, and alcohol destroyed, fearing the Native Americans might misuse them. On August 14, a Potawatomi leader named Black Partridge warned Heald that young men in the tribe planned to attack and could no longer stop them.
At 9:00 a.m. on August 15, the group, which included 54 U.S. soldiers, 12 militia members, nine women, and 18 children, left Fort Dearborn to march to Fort Wayne. Wells led the group with some Miami escorts, while other Miamis stayed at the rear. About 1.5 miles south of Fort Dearborn, a group of Potawatomi warriors attacked the group. Heald reported that when the soldiers saw the Native Americans hiding behind a hill, they climbed the hill, fired a shot, and charged at the attackers.
This action separated the soldiers from the wagons, allowing the larger Native American force to attack the gap between the groups and surround them. During the battle, some Native Americans attacked the wagons carrying women, children, and supplies. The militia, along with Ensign George Ronan and the fort’s doctor, Van Voorhis, defended the wagons. Many soldiers, two women, and most of the children were killed. Wells tried to help those at the wagons but was killed. Eyewitnesses said Wells fought many attackers before dying, and some Native Americans took his heart to gain his strength.
The battle lasted about 15 minutes, after which Heald and the surviving soldiers surrendered to the Native Americans and were taken to their camp near Fort Dearborn. In his report, Heald said 26 soldiers, all 12 militia members, two women, and 12 children were killed. The other 28 soldiers, seven women, and six children were captured. Survivors gave different stories about the Miami warriors, with some saying they fought for the Americans and others saying they did not fight at all.
Accounts
The stories of several survivors from the battle have been written down and shared. Heald’s account was recorded by Charles Askin in his diary on September 22, 1812. Heald also wrote short descriptions of the battle in his journal and in an official report. Walter Jordan wrote about the events in a letter to his wife on October 12, 1812. Helm wrote a detailed story of the battle, but he delayed publishing it until 1814 because he was afraid of facing military punishment for criticizing Heald. John Kinzie’s account of the battle was recorded by Henry Schoolcraft in August 1820.
The details in these accounts differ, especially about who is responsible for starting the battle. Juliette Augusta Magill Kinzie’s book Wau-Bun: The Early Day in the Northwest, published in 1856, tells the traditional version of the conflict. However, this account is based on family stories and is not considered accurate by historians. Despite this, many people accepted it as true.
The Battle of Fort Dearborn has also been called the “Fort Dearborn Massacre” by the American soldiers who defended the fort. This name comes from the large number of American soldiers, women, and children who were killed, compared to the smaller number of Potawatomi losses. Some people argue that the battle was an act of self-defense by the Potawatomi.
Aftermath
After the battle, Native Americans took their prisoners to their camp near Fort Dearborn, and the fort was burned down. The area stayed without U.S. citizens until after the war ended. Some prisoners died while in captivity, and others were later freed after payment. The fort was rebuilt in 1816.
General William Henry Harrison, who was not at the battle, later said the Miami people had fought against the Americans. He used the Battle of Fort Dearborn as a reason to attack Miami villages. Miami Chief Pacanne and his nephew, Jean Baptiste Richardville, then stopped staying neutral in the War of 1812 and joined forces with the British.
Historical perspective
From the viewpoint of the War of 1812 and the larger conflict between Britain and France that led to it, this battle was small and short. However, it had important effects in the region. For Native American tribes, it may be seen as an example of "winning a battle but losing the war," because the United States later forced the tribes to leave the area. This led to the 1833 Treaty of Chicago, which was completed in 1835 with the final major Native American war dance in the newly developing city. After this, the Potawatomi and other tribes were relocated farther west.
Location and Park
Eyewitness accounts say the battle happened near the lake shore, between 1 and 2 miles (1.6 and 3.2 km) south of Fort Dearborn. Heald's official report stated the battle occurred 1 and a half miles (2.4 km) south of the fort, which is now the intersection of Roosevelt Road (12th Street) and Michigan Avenue. Juliette Kinzie, near the time of her death in 1870, said the battle began near a large cottonwood tree located on 18th Street between Prairie Avenue and the lake. This tree was believed to be the last remaining tree from a group of trees that were saplings during the battle.
The tree fell in a storm on May 16, 1894, and part of its trunk was kept at the Chicago Historical Society. Historian Harry A. Musham noted that all information about the tree comes from people who lived in Chicago more than 20 years after the battle. Based on the size of the preserved trunk (about 3 feet or 0.91 meters in diameter), he estimated the tree was no older than 80 years when it fell, meaning it could not have been growing during the battle. Despite this, the site at 18th Street and Prairie Avenue is now the traditional location linked to the battle. In 2009, on the 197th anniversary of the battle, the Chicago Park District, the Prairie District Neighborhood Alliance, and other groups dedicated "Battle of Fort Dearborn Park" near the site at 18th Street and Calumet Avenue.
Monuments
In 1893, George Pullman had a sculpture made by Carl Rohl-Smith and placed near his home. The sculpture shows the rescue of Margaret Helm, who was the stepdaughter of John Kinzie, a Chicago resident, and the wife of Lieutenant Linai Taliaferro Helm. She was saved by Potawatomi chief Black Partridge, who led her and others to Lake Michigan and helped them escape by boat. The monument was moved to the lobby of the Chicago Historical Society in 1931. However, in the 1970s, Native American groups protested its display, and it was removed.
In the 1990s, the statue was placed again near 18th Street and Prairie Avenue, close to where it originally stood, during the restoration of the Prairie Avenue Historic District. Later, it was removed by the Office of Public Art of the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs for preservation reasons. Some people are trying to put the monument back, but the Chicago American Indian Center is opposing this effort.
The event is also remembered with a sculpture called Defense, created by Henry Hering. It is located on the southwestern tender's house of the Michigan Avenue Bridge, which covers part of the site of Fort Dearborn. Chicago also has memorials for people who fought in the battle. William Wells is honored by the name of Wells Street, a north-south street that was part of Chicago’s original 1830 city plan. Nathan Heald is honored by the name of Heald Square. Ronan Park, on Chicago’s Far North Side, honors Ensign Ronan, who was the first West Point graduate to die in battle.