Publius Ovidius Naso, known in English as Ovid, was a Roman poet who lived during the time of Emperor Augustus. He was a contemporary of Virgil and Horace, and together they are often considered among the three most important poets of Latin literature. Quintilian, a respected scholar, called Ovid the last great poet who wrote about love in Latin. Even though Ovid was very popular during his lifetime, Emperor Augustus sent him into exile to Tomis, the capital of the newly created province of Moesia, located on the Black Sea. Ovid stayed there for the last nine or ten years of his life. He himself said his exile was caused by "a poem and a mistake," but he never explained what the mistake was, leading to many theories by scholars.

Ovid is best known for his work Metamorphoses, a long story about myths written in fifteen books using a special type of meter called dactylic hexameters. He also wrote poems in elegiac couplets, such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was widely copied during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages and greatly influenced Western art and literature. Today, Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources for understanding classical mythology.

Life

Ovid wrote more about his own life than most other Roman poets. Most information about his life comes from his poetry, especially a poem called Tristia 4.10, which includes a long story about his life. Other sources include writings by Seneca the Elder and Quintilian.

Ovid was born in a town called Sulmo (now known as Sulmona in Italy) in 43 BC. This was an important year in Roman history. He came from an important family called the gens Ovidia. He and his brother, who was good at speaking in public, were educated in Rome by teachers named Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro. His father wanted him to study rhetoric so he could become a lawyer. However, Seneca the Elder said Ovid focused more on emotions than arguments in his studies. After his brother died at age 20, Ovid gave up law and traveled to places like Athens, Asia Minor, and Sicily. He held some small government jobs but later left them to write poetry, which his father did not approve of.

Ovid first read his poetry publicly around 25 BC, when he was 18 years old. He was part of a group of writers supported by a wealthy man named Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus. He also knew poets connected to Maecenas, another important patron. In Tristia 4.10, Ovid mentioned friendships with poets like Macer, Propertius, and Bassus. He also said he heard the poet Horace recite his work. He only met Virgil and Tibullus briefly, even though they were part of the same group.

Ovid married three times and divorced twice by the time he was 30. He had one daughter and grandchildren through her. His last wife was from a powerful family called the gens Fabia and helped him during his time in exile in a place called Tomis (now Constanța in Romania).

For the first 25 years of his writing career, Ovid mostly wrote poetry about love and romance in a style called elegiac meter. Scholars have tried to date his early works, but the timeline is not certain. His earliest known work is the Heroides, a collection of letters written by mythological heroines to their lovers. This may have been published in 19 BC, though the date is unclear. Some of these poems have been questioned, but the first 14 poems in the collection were likely published first.

Ovid’s Amores, a series of love poems to a woman named Corinna, was published around 16–15 BC. A later version of the work, which only has three books, was published around 8–3 BC. Between these two versions, Ovid wrote a play called Medea, which was admired in ancient times but is no longer available.

Ovid’s next work, Medicamina Faciei (a short poem about beauty treatments), was followed by Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love), a humorous guide to seduction. This was written around AD 2, though parts of it may date back to 1 BC. Ovid may have mentioned this work as the reason for his exile. He also wrote Remedia Amoris (The Cure for Love) in the same year. These poems helped Ovid become one of the most famous Roman elegists, along with Gallus, Tibullus, and Propertius.

By AD 8, Ovid had completed Metamorphoses, a long poem in 15 books that tells stories of transformations from Greek and Roman myths. He also worked on Fasti, a poem about Roman festivals and astronomy, but had to stop writing it when he was exiled. Some of the later Heroides poems may have been written during this time.

In AD 8, Ovid was sent into exile in Tomis, a city on the Black Sea, by Emperor Augustus. This event greatly influenced his later writing. Ovid said his exile was caused by “a poem and a mistake,” and claimed his crime was worse than murder.

Around the same time, Augustus’s grandchildren, Julia the Younger and Agrippa Postumus, were also exiled. Julia’s husband was executed for conspiring against Augustus, and Ovid may have known about this.

The Roman laws passed in 18 BC, which encouraged monogamous marriage to increase the population, were still fresh in people’s minds. Ovid’s Ars Amatoria discussed the crime of adultery, which may have led to his exile. However, some scholars think Augustus used the poem as an excuse for a personal reason.

While in exile, Ovid wrote two collections of poems, Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, which expressed his sadness and longing for Rome. He could not access libraries, so he may have stopped working on Fasti, a poem about the Roman calendar. He also learned to speak the languages of the local people in Tomis.

The five books of Tristia, which describe his sorrow and request to return to Rome, were written between AD 9 and 12. A poem called Ibis, which curses an unnamed enemy, may also date to this time. Epistulae ex Ponto, a series of letters to friends in Rome, was likely his last work. The first three books were published in AD 13, and the fourth between AD 14 and 16. These poems are very emotional and personal. In them, Ovid mentions his longing for Rome and his third wife, as well as his hope to return home.

The reasons for Ovid’s exile are unclear, and scholars have made many guesses. Medieval texts about his exile do not provide clear answers, and Ovid himself gave vague or conflicting clues.

In 1923, a scholar named J. J. Hartman suggested that Ovid was never actually exiled and that his exile poems were imagined. This idea was debated in the 1930s. In 1985, a scholar named Fitton Brown supported Hartman’s theory, but others disagreed. Brown argued that Ovid’s exile may not have happened, but this remains a topic of discussion.

Works

The Heroides ("Heroines") or Epistulae Heroidum is a collection of twenty-one poems written in a specific rhyme pattern called elegiac couplets. These poems take the form of letters written by famous characters from Greek and Roman myths to their loved ones. The letters express their feelings about being separated, ask for their return, and hint at future events in their stories. Scholars debate whether the entire collection or parts of it were written by Ovid, but most agree that the letters Ovid specifically mentions in his work Amores are likely genuine. This collection introduces a new type of writing that had not been seen before in earlier literature.

The first fourteen letters are believed to be the earliest part of the collection. They are written by women like Penelope, Phyllis, Briseis, and others to their absent male lovers. Letter 15, written by the real-life poet Sappho to a man named Phaon, is thought to be fake. This is because it is longer than the others, does not fit the mythological theme, and is missing from ancient manuscripts. The final six letters (16–21) are paired letters: one from a lover and one from the recipient. These include pairs like Paris and Helen, Hero and Leander, and Acontius and Cydippe. These letters are likely added later, as Ovid never mentions them, and their authenticity is uncertain.

The Heroides show the influence of persuasive speaking and storytelling techniques. They may have been inspired by Ovid’s interest in speeches and acting as other characters. The poems also mix different types of writing, such as epic and tragic stories, into the elegiac style of the Heroides. These letters are praised for showing deep emotions of the characters, their use of persuasive language, and their unique way of connecting to classical myths. They also help people understand how ideas about gender and identity were shaped in ancient Rome.

A famous line from the Heroides is "Exitus acta probat," which means "the result justifies the means." This idea is similar to a later saying by Machiavelli.

The Amores is a collection of three books filled with love poems written in elegiac meter. This style was popularized by earlier poets like Tibullus and Propertius. Ovid changed how elegies were written by shifting the focus from the poet to the god of love, Amor (Cupid). This change made love the central theme instead of the poet’s achievements. Ovid used love as a metaphor for poetry, showing how love affects people. The poems describe different aspects of love, especially the poet’s relationship with a woman named Corinna. The poems tell stories about their relationship, creating a loose narrative with small scenes.

Book 1 has 15 poems. The first poem tells how Ovid wanted to write epic poetry but was changed by Cupid into writing love poems. Poem 4 teaches lessons that Ovid later expands on in his work Ars Amatoria. Poem 5 introduces Corinna by name. Poems 8 and 9 describe Corinna choosing gifts over love, while poems 11 and 12 talk about the poet’s failed attempt to meet her. Poem 14 discusses Corinna’s failed attempt to dye her hair, and poem 15 claims that Ovid and love poets will live forever.

Book 2 has 19 poems. The first poem explains how Ovid gave up writing about a battle between gods and chose to write love poems instead. Poems 2 and 3 ask for permission to see Corinna, while poem 6 laments the death of Corinna’s pet parrot. Poems 7 and 8 describe Ovid’s affair with Corinna’s servant and her discovery of it. Poems 11 and 12 try to stop Corinna from going on vacation. Poem 13 is a prayer to the goddess Isis for Corinna’s health, and poem 14 warns against abortion. Poem 19 advises husbands to be cautious.

Book 3 has 15 poems. The first poem shows the goddesses of Tragedy and Elegy fighting over Ovid. Poem 2 describes a visit to a horse race, and poems 3 and 8 talk about Corinna’s interest in other men. Poem 10 complains to the goddess Ceres about a festival that requires fasting, and poem 13 describes a festival for Juno. Poem 9 mourns the poet Tibullus. Poem 11 says Ovid no longer loves Corinna and regrets writing about her. The final poem is Ovid’s goodbye to the muse of love. Critics say these poems are very self-aware and creative examples of the elegiac style.

About 100 lines of a poem about beauty treatments for women’s skin survive. This poem seems to mock serious teaching poems. It tells women to focus on manners first and then gives some skincare tips before stopping. The style is similar to shorter poems from ancient Greek writers like Nicander and Aratus.

The Ars Amatoria is a teaching poem in three books that explains how to seduce and keep a lover. The first book teaches men how to find and seduce women, the second book teaches men how to keep a lover, and the third book teaches women how to seduce men. The first book starts with a prayer to the goddess Venus, where Ovid calls himself a "teacher of love." He describes places to find a lover, like theaters and arenas, and ways to attract a woman’s attention, such as sneaking up on her at a banquet. Timing and gaining the trust of a woman’s friends are important.

Ovid tells men to take care of their appearance and avoid giving too many gifts. He also advises hiding affairs and complimenting their lovers. He talks about how Venus helps with having children and how Apollo helps men keep their lovers. He includes stories about the gods Vulcan trapping Venus and Mars. The book ends with Ovid asking his readers to spread his fame.

The third book starts by defending women’s abilities and says Ovid will teach women how to protect themselves from his earlier advice. He tells women to avoid too many decorations and to read elegiac poetry. He also advises them to play games, flirt, and be clever. He includes stories about mythical characters like Procris and Cephalus. The book ends with Ovid hoping women will follow his advice and say, "Naso magister erat" ("Ovid was our teacher"). Ovid was

Spurious works

The Consolatio is a long poem written to comfort Augustus' wife, Livia, after the death of her son, Nero Claudius Drusus. The poem begins by telling Livia not to hide her sadness and compares Drusus' bravery in battle to his death. It describes Drusus' funeral, the honors given by the imperial family, and Livia's grief, which is compared to the sorrow of birds. The poem also mentions how the city of Rome mourns Drusus' passing and how the god Mars stops the Tiber River from putting out Drusus' funeral fire out of sadness. The poet expresses sorrow for Drusus' lost military achievements, his wife, and his mother. The poet encourages Livia to find comfort in Tiberius. The poem ends with Drusus speaking to Livia, assuring her that he will be in a peaceful place called Elysium. Although this poem was once linked to another work called the Elegiae in Maecenatem, scholars now believe they are unrelated. The exact date of the poem is unknown, but it is thought to have been written during the time Tiberius ruled.

The Halieutica is a short, incomplete poem made up of 134 lines. It is written in a style that teaches or explains information, but many lines are damaged or missing. Scholars believe this poem is not genuine. It begins by describing how animals, including fish, use skills to protect themselves. The poem also lists places where fishing is best and which types of fish are easiest to catch. Pliny the Elder mentioned a poem called Halieutica written by Ovid near the end of his life, but modern scholars disagree, believing Pliny was mistaken.

This short poem, made up of 91 lines, is connected to a story from Aesop about a walnut tree that suffers because people are unkind. The tree speaks to children, asking them not to throw stones at it to get its fruit. It compares its past, when it was full of fruit, to its present, when its fruit is taken roughly and its branches are broken. The tree compares itself to characters from myths, praises the peace brought by the emperor, and asks to be destroyed rather than continue suffering. Scholars think this poem is not genuine because it uses references to Ovid's works in a way that is unusual for him. However, the poem may have been written around the same time as Ovid.

This poem is traditionally thought to be part of Ovid's Amores 3.5, but scholars believe it is not genuine. The poem describes a dream seen by someone who tells an interpreter about it. The dream shows a white heifer near a bull, but the heifer runs away when a crow pecks it. The interpreter explains the dream as a story about love: the bull represents the poet, the heifer represents a girl, and the crow represents an old woman who causes the girl to leave her lover. The poem was shared separately and does not resemble the style of other poets from that time, which supports the idea that it is not genuine. However, it is believed to have been written during the early years of the Roman Empire.

Style

Ovid is often seen as the last major poet who wrote love elegies, a type of poem that focuses on personal emotions and relationships. Like other well-known elegiac poets, Ovid creates a character in his poems that expresses personal feelings rather than focusing on public or military themes. Some scholars believe this style is connected to the stability brought by the Augustan settlement. However, while poets like Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius may have been influenced by their own lives, whether their works should be interpreted as reflections of their personal lives is a topic of debate among scholars.

Ovid’s use of a character in his poetry is often described as less emotionally connected to his lover, Corinna, compared to other elegists. This, along with the lack of evidence that Corinna was a real person, has led scholars to believe that Corinna was not a real person but a fictional character created for Ovid’s poems. Some scholars even suggest that Corinna represents the love elegy genre itself in Ovid’s work.

Ovid is known for being creative with traditional love elegy themes and styles. Quintilian called him a "sportive" elegist, meaning he used the genre in playful or inventive ways. For example, he used the paraklausithyron, a type of poem, in Amores 1.6. Other poems, like the one about Corinna’s ruined hair in Amores 1.14, appear to be entirely Ovid’s own ideas. Scholars also note that Ovid’s love poems are more explicit about sexual themes than those of other elegists.

Ovid’s love elegies cover a wide range of topics. The Amores focus on his relationship with Corinna, while the Heroides explore the love stories of mythical characters. The Ars Amatoria and other didactic poems provide advice on love and seduction in a humorous, almost scientific tone. Scholars have observed that Ovid’s use of rhetorical techniques—such as surprising readers or smoothly connecting ideas—was influenced by his education.

Some scholars also note that Ovid’s interest in love elegies influenced his other works, like the Fasti. They distinguish his "elegiac" style, which is more emotional, from his "epic" style, which is more serious. Richard Heinze, in his 1919 work Ovids elegische Erzählung, compared the Fasti and Metamorphoses to show this difference. He argued that the Fasti has a sentimental tone, while the Metamorphoses emphasizes solemnity and grandeur. This view has been supported by Brooks Otis, who noted that Ovid’s love poems often reused old themes in a humorous way. Otis also stated that the Heroides are more serious but still follow traditional themes, such as women separated from their lovers, a common idea in earlier poetry.

Otis also pointed out that characters like Phaedra, Medea, Dido, and Hermione in Ovid’s works are inspired by earlier poets like Euripides and Virgil. Scholars such as Kenney and Clausen have compared Ovid to Virgil, noting that Virgil’s writing was more ambiguous, while Ovid’s was more direct. They also observed that Virgil focused on the power of language, while Ovid focused on expressing his own ideas.

Legacy

Ovid's works have been interpreted in many ways over time. These interpretations often depend on the social, religious, and literary situations of each era. It is known that even during Ovid's lifetime, his work was famous and criticized. In the Remedia Amoris, Ovid mentions criticism from people who called his books insolent. Ovid responded by saying:

"Gluttonous Envy, burst: my name is already well known. It will become even more so if only my feet travel the road they've started. But you are too eager: if I live, you will regret it. Many poems are forming in my mind."

After this criticism faded, Ovid became one of the most well-known and loved Roman poets during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

During the Middle Ages, writers used Ovid's work to discuss topics like sex and violence without facing the same strict scrutiny applied to religious texts. A French work called the Ovide moralisé was created, which reinterpreted 15 books of the Metamorphoses with moral lessons. This work influenced writers like Geoffrey Chaucer. Ovid's poetry also inspired the Renaissance idea of humanism, especially for painters and writers of that time.

Arthur Golding translated all 15 books of the Metamorphoses and published them in 1567. This version was used in grammar schools during the Tudor era and influenced writers like Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Many non-English authors were also influenced by Ovid's work. For example, Michel de Montaigne mentioned Ovid in his Essays, particularly when discussing education.

Miguel de Cervantes used the Metamorphoses as inspiration for his novel Don Quixote. Cervantes both praised and criticized Ovid, warning about the dangers of satires that could exile poets, as happened to Ovid.

In the 16th century, some Jesuit schools in Portugal removed parts of Ovid's Metamorphoses because, although they saw his work as elegant, they worried it might corrupt students. Jesuit teachers later taught Ovid's works in Portuguese colonies, including Brazil, where students read his Epistulae ex Ponto to learn Latin.

In England, Ovid's works were criticized in the 16th century. In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London ordered that a translation of Ovid's love poems be publicly burned. Later, Puritans viewed Ovid as a pagan and an immoral influence. In the 17th century, John Dryden translated the Metamorphoses into rhyming couplets, reshaping Ovid's work for the time.

During the 19th century, the Romantic movement found Ovid's poetry "stuffy, dull, over-formalized, and lacking in genuine passion." However, some Romantics appreciated Ovid's exile poems. A painting called Ovid Among the Scythians by Delacroix depicted Ovid's life in exile and inspired writers like Baudelaire and Edgar Degas.

Ovid's exile poems were once less valued but have gained more scholarly interest in recent years. Scholars still debate their intended audience and whether Ovid was sincere in his "recantation" of his earlier beliefs.

In 1992, classical scholar Amy Richlin wrote about the prevalence of rape in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Since the #MeToo Movement in 2017, there has been more focus on sexual violence in Ovid's work. In the 21st century, feminist writers have reinterpreted Ovid's Metamorphoses to criticize how he portrayed women. For example, Ali Smith's novel Girl Meets Boy (2007) reimagines the lesbian relationship between Iphis and Ianthe from Book 9. Madeleine Miller's novella Galatea (2013) retells the story of Pygmalion and Galatea, giving Galatea a voice to express her resilience. Fiona Benson's poetry collection Vertigo and Ghost (2019) explores female victims of Zeus's violence in Ovid's work. Nina MacLaughlin's short story collection Wake Siren (2019) also focuses on themes of sexual assault in Ovid's Metamorphoses.

• (c. 800–810) Moduin, a poet in Charlemagne's court, used the pen name Naso.
• (12th century) Troubadours and medieval literature, such as the Conte du Graal by Chrétien de Troyes, included elements from the Metamorphoses.
• (13th century) Roman de la Rose, Dante Alighieri.
• (14th century) Petrarch, Geoffrey Chaucer, Juan Ruiz.
• (15th century) Sandro Botticelli.
• (16th–17th century) Luís de Camões, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, John Marston, Thomas Edwards.
• (17th century) John Milton, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote (1605, 1615), Luis de Góngora's La Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea (1613), Landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe by Nicolas Poussin (1651), Stormy Landscape with Philemon and Baucis by Peter Paul Rubens (c. 1620), "Divine Narcissus" by Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (c. 1689).
• (1820s) During his exile in Odessa, Alexander Pushkin compared himself to Ovid, as seen in his poem To Ovid (1821). Pushkin also wrote about Ovid in Gypsies (1824) and Eugene Onegin (

Gallery

• A painting titled "Ovid" created by Anton von Werner
• A painting titled "Ovid" created by Luca Signorelli
• A painting titled "Scythians at the Tomb of Ovid" (around 1640), created by Johann Heinrich Schönfeld

Editions

• McKeown, J. (editor), Ovid: Amores. Text, Prolegomena, and Commentary in four volumes, Volumes I to III (Liverpool, 1987–1998) (ARCA, 20, 22, 36).
• Ryan, M. B.; Perkins, C. A. (editors), Ovid's Amores, Book One: A Commentary (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011) (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture, 41).
• Tarrant, R. J. (editor), P. Ovidi Nasonis Metamorphoses (Oxford: OUP, 2004) (Oxford Classical Texts).
• Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 1–5 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
• Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 6–10 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972).
• Kenney, E. J. (editor), P. Ovidi Nasonis Amores, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Ars Amatoria, Remedia Amoris (Oxford: OUP, 1994) (Oxford Classical Texts).
• Myers, K. Sara, Ovid Metamorphoses 14. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 2009).
• Ramírez de Verger, A. (editor), Ovidius, Carmina Amatoria. Amores. Medicamina faciei femineae. Ars amatoria. Remedia amoris. (München & Leipzig: Saur, 2006) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).
• Dörrie, H. (editor), Epistulae Heroidum / P. Ovidius Naso (Berlin & New York: de Gruyter, 1971) (Texte und Kommentare; Bd. 6).
• Fornaro, P. (editor), Publio Ovidio Nasone, Heroides (Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso, 1999).
• Alton, E.H.; Wormell, D.E.W.; Courtney, E. (editors), P. Ovidi Nasonis Fastorum libri sex (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 1997) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).
• Fantham, Elaine, Fasti. Book IV. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 1998).
• Wiseman, Anne and Peter Wiseman, Ovid: Fasti. (Oxford University Press, 2013).
• Goold, G.P., et alii (editors), Ovid, Heroides, Amores; Art of Love, Cosmetics, Remedies for Love, Ibis, Walnut-tree, Sea Fishing, Consolation; Metamorphoses; Fasti; Tristia, Ex Ponto, Volumes I–VI (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: HUP, 1977–1989, revised edition) (Loeb Classical Library).
• Hall, J.B. (editor), P. Ovidi Nasonis Tristia (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 1995) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).
• Ingleheart, Jennifer, Tristia Book 2. (Oxford University Press, 2010).
• Richmond, J. A. (editor), P. Ovidi Nasonis Ex Ponto libri quattuor (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 1990) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).